Here are some notes I wrote up on the particle τε.
— τε —
A single τε as ``and’’
Proto-Indo-European had two ways of saying and,'' which are hidden inside English words like eddy’’ and thou[u]gh[/u]'' but more explicit in Latin et and -que. The first of these is an infix like English and’’ and the latter a postposition, as seen in Senatus Populusque Romanus
(SPQR), the senate and people of Rome.'' In Greek, et shifted meanings and ended up as the past-tense prefix ἐ- and adverb ἔτι (yet, still’'), its task as an infix being taken
over by καί. But the postpositive -que mostly kept on doing the same job while undergoing
regular phonetic change to become τε. Although τε does have other uses, the overwhelming
majority of the time, when Homer uses τε it’s in this sense.
For a simple two-word list, there can be a single τε, which, being postpositive, comes after
the second word:
Iliad 1.4-5
ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν
hero autós but booty make, cause; pass: happen dog
pl.GEN pl.m.ACC PCL pl.ACC IMPF pl.DAT
οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ᾽ ἐτελείετο βουλή·
vulture, omen and all Zeús but fulfill will, plan
pl.DAT PCL pl.m.DAT GEN PCL IMPF.MP NOM
[…casting to Hades the souls of] heroes, making their bodies into booty for dogs and vultures —
as Zeus had planned.
If there’s a difference in meaning compared to καί, it’s subtle, and commentators
don’t necessarily agree on what it is. \cite{Denniston} thinks τε shows a ``closer
connection.‘’ \cite{Monro} thinks that τε implies an equal footing. Then in Iliad 1.5,
it’s bad enough to get eaten by dogs, but that’s not all: don’t forget that you get eaten
by vultures, too. If a two-item list consists of multi-word phrases, τε will typically be
buried after the first word of the second item:
Iliad 6.476
«Ζεῦ ἄλλοι τε θεοὶ δότε δὴ καὶ τόνδε γενέσθαι
zeús other and god give; permit indeed and hóde become, happen
VOC pl.m.VOC PCL pl.VOC 2.pl.AOR.... PCL CONJ m.ACC AOR.INF
``Zeus and the other gods, permit and let this happen …
The single τε as ``and’’ is mainly found in poetry.
The two-word unit τε καί can be used in the same way as καί:
Iliad 1.17
«Ἀτρεΐδαι τε καὶ ἄλλοι ἐϋκνήμιδες Ἀχαιοί,
Atreídēs and and other well-greaved Achaiós
pl.VOC PCL CONJ pl.m.VOC pl.m.VOC pl.m.VOC
Sons of Atreus, and all the other well-greaved Achaeans, …
Τε…τε as ``and’’
For heavier emphasis, as in ``both X and Y,‘’ there can be a τε for every item. This
construction is somewhat like a bullet list, except that τε-bullets comes after the first
word of each item.
Iliad 1.70
ὃς ᾔδη τά τ᾽ ἐόντα τά τ᾽ ἐσσόμενα πρό τ᾽ ἐόντα
this; which know - and be, exist, have - and be, exist, have before, forward and be, exist, have
m.NOM PLPF pl.n.ACC PCL pl.PTCP.n.ACC pl.n.ACC PCL pl.FUT.PTCP.... PREP PCL pl.PTCP.n.ACC
[The seer Calchas is introduced as the one] who knew what is, what will be, and what was, …
The combinations τε…καὶ and τε…ἠδέ function like τε…τε:
Iliad 1.7
Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς.
Atreídēs and lord man and divine Achilleús
NOM PCL NOM pl.GEN CONJ m.NOM NOM
…the son of Atreus, lord of men, and godlike Achilles.
\cite{Monro} thinks the meanings are ``not sensibly different’’ from that of τε…τε in
Homer, but \cite{Smyth} (\pagesec{667}{2974ff}) describes differences in prose and Attic Greek.
The first τε can show up earlier, as a postpositive attached to the first word of the clause
rather than the first word of the list. Here, this prevents hiatus:
Iliad 5.878
σοί τ᾽ ἐπιπείθονται καὶ δεδμήμεσθα ἕκαστος·
you and be persuaded, obey and subdue each
m.DAT PCL pl.MP CONJ 1.pl.PF.MP m.NOM
[Mars prays to Zeus to restrain Athena. ``…for all the gods in Olympus] obey you, and we submit to you…‘’
For more on the placement of τε, see \cite{Smyth}, \pagesec{667}{2983}.
Sometimes the meaning is best translated not as and'' but as for,‘’ by,'' or in order to:‘’
Iliad 5.359
«φίλε κασίγνητε κόμισαί τέ με δός τέ μοι ἵππους,
friend brother, sister minister to and I, me give; permit and I, me horse
m.VOC VOC 2.AOR.IM... PCL f.ACC 2.AOR.IMPV PCL f.DAT pl.ACC
[Athena asks Mars:] ``My brother, help me by giving me your horses, …‘’
Epic τε for generalization
Besides its use as a conjunction, τε has a second and completely different set of uses. (There
may even be two etymologically separate words.\cite{Denniston}) There is some disagreement
among authors, and no explanation works for every such use of the word, but in many cases it
appears that τε marks a statement as universally true, or tells us that it describes habits
or permanent characteristics.
Iliad 16.688
ἀλλ᾽ αἰεί τε Διὸς κρείσσων νόος ἠέ περ ἀνδρῶν·
but always, forever and Zeús more powerful mind or; than - man
CONJ ADV PCL GEN m.NOM NOM CONJ PCL pl.GEN
But ever is the mind of Zeus more powerful than those of men
Iliad 2.292
καὶ γάρ τίς θ᾽ ἕνα μῆνα μένων ἀπὸ ἧς ἀλόχοιο
and for some and one month stay, wait, remain apó his/her own wife
ADV PCL m.NOM PCL m.ACC ACC PTCP.m.NOM PREP f.GEN GEN
For [it is true in general that] one who remains away from his wife [becomes distressed…]
Τε is often used after a relative pronoun. This marks the relative clause as general, habitual,
or permanent.
Iliad 1.86-87
οὐ μὰ γὰρ Ἀπόλλωνα Διῒ φίλον, ᾧ τε σὺ, Κάλχαν,
ou by for Apóllōn Zeús friend this; which and you Kálchas
ADV PCL PCL ACC DAT m.ACC m.DAT PCL NOM VOC
εὐχόμενος Δαναοῖσι θεοπροπίας ἀναφαίνεις,
declare; pray subjects of Danaus, Greeks prophecy reveal, shine
PTCP.MP.m.NOM pl.DAT pl.ACC 2
[Calchas is worried that the Danaans will react angrily to his prophecy.
Achilles swears] ``…for not, by Apollo, son of Zeus, of these Danaans to whom you [habitually] prophesize…‘’ [will anyone lay hands on him]
Some writers, such as \cite{Smyth}, believe instead that this usage is probably connective (not indefinite),'' and is used to show that its clause corresponds in some way to the preceding
clause.‘’ But the generalization idea seems equally consistent with the examples cited by Smyth,
such as Iliad 1.218 and the following:
Iliad 2.668-669
τριχθὰ δὲ ᾤκηθεν καταφυλαδόν, ἠδὲ φίληθεν
in three parts but inhabit by tribes - love
ADV PCL pl.AOR.... ADV CONJ pl.AOR....
ἐκ Διός, ὅς τε θεοῖσι καὶ ἀνθρώποισιν ἀνάσσει,
from Zeús this; which and god and human being rule
PREP GEN m.NOM PCL pl.DAT CONJ pl.DAT VERB
[Rhodes] was inhabited by three tribes, and beloved by Zeus, who timelessly rules gods and men…
See \cite{Denniston} for more references to the literature on differing points of view on this
topic (p.~520), and for examples that are clearly not generalizations (p.~530).
This document is under a CC-BY-SA license. Some glosses are based on entries in Wiktionary, CC-BY-SA, or Cunliffe, 1924.
References:
[Beekes 2010] Beekes, Etymological dictionary of Greek, 2010.
[Cunliffe 1924] Cunliffe, A lexicon of the Homeric dialect, 1924.
[Denniston 1954] Denniston, The Greek particles, 2nd ed., 1954.
[Monro 1891] Monro, A grammar of the Homeric Dialect, 1891.
[Smyth 1920] Smyth, Greek grammar for colleges, 1920.